Before starting work on a systematic review first check to ensure that a systematic review does not already exist, or is currently under investigation.
The list below contains databases and sites you can search for systematic reviews.
Developing a clear, well formed, focused and answerable question will make searching for evidence easier.
Ensure that your question addresses the topic of interest, is relevant and it will add new research on the topic area.
At this point it is common to think about your inclusion and exclusion criteria, in some instances you may develop these after an initial search of your topic area.
When constructing a research question it is common to break the elements down. One of the most common models used to assist you in this process is the PICO model. The image below describes each section.
For more detail on using the PICO model see the next tab titled frameworks for health and medicine.
PICO Model
A technique often used in health research for formulating a clinical question is the PICO Model. The PICO Model has 4 elements which are detailed below.
The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions (2022, Chapter 2) includes the following factors to consider when developing criteria for your PICO elements.
| Patient, Population or Problem |
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| Interventions and Comparisons |
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| Outcomes |
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Source: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022). Cochrane, 2022. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
PCC Model
The PCC model is is a framework recommended by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) when developing a research question. The key concepts of this model are listed below.
| Population | Important characteristics of participants, including age and other qualifying criteria. |
| Concept | Use the ideas from your primary questions to determine your concept. The core concept examined by the scoping review should be clearly articulated to guide the scope and breadth of the inquiry. This may include details that pertain to elements that would be detailed in a standard systematic review, such as the "interventions" and/or "phenomena of interest" and/or "outcomes". |
| Context | May include... cultural factors such as geographic location and/or specific racial or gender-based interests. In some cases, context may also encompass details about the specific setting. |
Source: Aromataris E, Munn Z (Editors). (2020). JBI manual for evidence synthesis. Joanna Briggs Institute. https://doi.org/10.46658/JBIMES-20-01
The following frameworks are commonly used in social sciences areas to help develop a research question.
PICo
This variation of the PICO model is often useful for qualitative studies. The PICo has 3 elements to define your question.
| Population or Problem | What is the problem, or condition you are looking into and how is your population defined. |
| Interest | What is the process or experience you are focusing on? |
| Context | Where is this happening? |
For more information on the PICo framework read:
Lockwood, C., Munn, Z., & Porritt, K. (2015). Qualitative research synthesis: Methodological guidance for systematic reviewers utilizing meta-aggregation. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 13(3), 179-187. https://doi.org/10.1097/XEB.0000000000000062
SPICE
The SPICE framework can also be used for the development of a qualitative research research question.
| Setting | Where is this taking place? |
| Perspective | Who are the patients, or how are you defining the population? |
| Intervention | How is the this being dealt with? |
| Comparison | What are you comparing this with? |
| Evaluation | How was success measured? |
For more information about the SPICE framework read:
Booth, A. (2006). Clear and present questions: Formulating questions for evidence based practice. Library Hi Tech, 24(3), 355-368. https://doi.org/10.1108/07378830610692127
SPIDER
The SPIDER question format was adapted from the PICO tool to search for qualitative and mixed-methods research.
Using this framework to develop a research question will use the below concepts.
| Sample | Who are you participants? |
| Phenomenon of Interest | What are their attitudes and experiences in relation to the issues being focused on. |
| Design | What type of study are you doing? |
| Evaluation | Which result are you focusing on and how are you measuring it. |
| Research Type | Is it qualitative, quantitative or a mixture of both? |
For more information on the SPIDER framework read:
Cooke, A., Smith, D., & Booth, A. (2012). Beyond PICO: The SPIDER Tool for Qualitative Evidence Synthesis. Qualitative Health Research, 22(10), 1435–1443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732312452938
A protocol is a detailed plan of what you plan to undertake within a systematic review.
A systematic review protocol describes the rationale, hypothesis, and planned methods of the review. It should be prepared before a review is started and used as a guide to carry out the review.
Publishing or registering a protocol in a register or a journal will help avoid duplication of research. The Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews, Part 2, Chapter 1.5 states that preparing a protocol “reduces the impact of review authors’ biases, promotes transparency of methods and processes reduces the potential for duplication and allows peer review of the planned methods.”
For more information on the importance of publishing a protocol read, The PLoS Medicine Editors (2011) Best practice in systematic reviews: The importance of protocols and registration. PLoS Med 8(2): e1001009. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001009
If you are thinking of publishing your systematic review make sure you review the write and publish tab for more information.
There are various places you can publish and find protocols, some are listed below.
The following are useful links to help you understand requirements of a systematic review. This list consists of links to guidelines and reporting standards.